Reviewed by Evan Schultheis, independent scholar, flavivsaetivs@gmail.com.
Alan Wilkins’s Roman Imperial Artillery is written as a standard reference text for specialists and non-specialists alike, designed as an introduction to the study of Roman artillery. While it is often difficult to capture such a broad audience and effectively guide them through such an introduction to a field, Wilkins is both effective and successful in this endeavor. Wilkins shepherds the reader through the history of the different major eras and types of artillery pieces (the gastraphétes, catapulta, ballista, and onager) with a brief discussion of aspects from historiography dispersed within each chapter, which breaks down a considerable body of scholarship into more manageable and relevant pieces. In this work, Wilkins seeks to update the consensus view with scholarly revisions of the past decade, including directly addressing several unresolved arguments through new archaeological evidence, scientific data, and experimental archaeology. Wilkins argues that much of the field has suffered in recent years from “blue sky thinking,” (p. xx) a term referring to a pointless search for new explanations, previously applied by Duncan Campbell to describe the derailment of the study of the iron-framed bolt thrower by Rudolf Schneider in 1906. This, he argues, has resulted in a circular discussion revolving around Aitor Iriarte’s interpretation of the χειροβαλλίστρα (cheiroballístra) passage of the Βελοποείκα (Velopoeíka) (Cod. Vat. Gr. 1164 and Cod. Par. Gr. 2442).1 This is one of several problems noted in Wilkins’s work, which he intends to resolve.
Due to the book’s format, it is necessary to provide a summary for the purpose of discussion. Wilkins opens his book with a preface foregrounding updates from previous editions released in 2008 and 2017, noting major new additions such as more illustrations and photographs; the inclusion of the first complete bolt and shaft found in-situ; ballista balls from Utrecht; a discussion of two crossbow reliefs; and a rewrite of the Burnswark camp appendix. The preface then discusses prior changes in the second edition, before moving to a remarkably short two-page introduction. Despite its brevity, Wilkins packs in some significant highlights on developments in mathematics, engineering, and other sciences that resulted from the invention of torsion-powered artillery. This leads into the first chapter on the origins of mechanical artillery in the latter half of the Classical period and Hellenistic world, where Wilkins attempts to begin establishing a timeline for the development of different elements of torsion artillery based on limited evidence from later sources. He argues for the standard model of the development beginning with the stomach-bow known as the γαστραφέτης (gastraphétes), to which a winch was added to create larger, more powerful machines, with torsion spring-powered arms replacing the composite bow prod sometime in the fourth century BCE. While Wilkins’s description is straightforward, this model requires some speculation, which follows the work of Eric Marsden who authored the multi-volume series Greek and Roman Artillery from 1969 to 1971 before his unexpected passing. This is despite Wilkins’ own admission that “there is no evidence for the date of its first appearance or which engineer(s) invented” the torsion spring artillery piece (p. 11).
The next chapter compiles descriptions from several primary sources about the stupendous strength of these weapons, in which Wilkins introduces the reader to some of the archaeology that will be discussed more extensively later in his work. This section on the impact of the projectiles then smoothly transitions into a chapter on the effectiveness of the bolt-shooter, where Wilkins expands his direct engagement with the arguments of other contemporary archaeologists. From there, the book moves to a chapter on the reconstruction of the late Republican and early Imperial bolt-shooter, followed by a subsequent chapter on the “new” bolt-shooter of the middle Imperial period, where Wilkins brings in the most recent archaeological developments in the field. Wilkins’s sixth chapter, on the metal-framed bolt-shooter, reflects the past three decades of scholarly debate, particularly disputing the interpretation of Aitor Iriarte and his reconstruction of the eleventh-century diagrams of the velopoeíka. Unlike the previous chapters, these chapters on the classical Roman catapulta and the later metal-framed bolt-shooter, as well as the related chapter on the codicology,2 are considerably longer, and Wilkins’s extensive real-world experience both with reconstructed devices and with the archaeological material is prominently on display in his discussion. For example, he discusses the problem of bolt ricochets off the center stanchion (“face plate” or “battle shield”), which he describes as a “not infrequent hazard today” and reflects an understanding of and experience with the subject that cannot be attained through purely academic study (p. 79).3
The order of the chapters then progresses from a discussion of metal-framed bolt throwers and their diagrams to a case study of the large Vitruvian stone-throwing ballista and its reconstruction, in which Wilkins was directly involved as translator and interpreter of the original texts, as well as in the design and engineering of three reconstructed devices. It is worth noting that the cheiroballístra and Vitruvian ballista chapters are the only two which discuss the actual codicology of the surviving Byzantine poliorcetic manuscripts in detail. Again, like prior, this chapter provides the building blocks for the following discussions on the archaeology of ballista projectiles in the form of a series of case studies on the sites of Masada and Qasr Ibrim, focusing on the use of artillery in offense and defense. This is then followed by a discussion of Arrian’s theoretical array against the Alans and the use of artillery in his model before moving to another case study on the use of bolt-throwing projectiles against the hillfort of Burnswark. The book concludes with a very brief chapter on the single-armed stone-thrower (onager) and a case study of the Hatra ballista that attempts to resolve the debate surrounding in-swinging versus out-swinging arm once and for all. Curiously, both Kayumov’s and Cherrette’s scholarship on the onager are absent from Wilkins’ analysis.4 The final three chapters are quite short. The first is a brief discussion of the survival of the torsion-powered, metal-framed bolt-thrower into the eleventh century, forming a chapter of one page. This is followed by a brief re-evaluation of the Roman contribution to artillery and engineering, arguing that they made significant advances in the sciences as well as in weapons technology, and a final chapter exploring future avenues of research. Finally, there are two appendices: the first discusses a semi-related set of third-century reliefs depicting the earliest known crossbow, and the second is a review of the 2021 documentary about the siege of the Burnswark fortress. A five-page bibliography and a description of primary sources, museums, and archaeological sites close out the volume.
A few things stand out in this book: The first is Wilkins’s ability to slowly build progressive amounts of complexity as the book progresses, introducing the reader to new aspects of the field with each chapter. As previously noted, the use of archaeological finds, specific academic debates, experimental archaeology, codicology, and other methods are covered in the introduction and then developed further throughout the book. This helps the book serve a broader audience than the scholarly discipline, but its discussions are detailed enough that academics specializing in other fields will also be adequately served. Secondly, the book includes 161 figures, tables, charts, and diagrams, mostly in color, and well printed in good resolution. Wilkins’s illustration of his text through these figures considerably assists the reader’s understanding of the content and its arguments. Relatedly, Wilkins’s knowledge of the sources and battlefield archaeology are also a highlight of his writing, allowing him to weave together ancient descriptions with mundane excavated lithics to describe the fearsome impact of these machines. All the while, his chapters build upon one another and his writing flows smoothly and engagingly.
However, there are some areas for improvement in future editions: Despite his extensive use of battlefield archaeology, the study of projectiles, and their positions in situ, it is disappointing that there is no spatial analysis conducted, a technique which has provided considerable insights in Crusader archaeology.5 The only exception to this is a brief mention of the shot projected from the De Meern fortress in the Netherlands (pp. 131–32). While a comprehensive spatial analysis of an archaeological battlefield is beyond the scope of Wilkins’s work, some commentary on the progress being made in this field could have benefited the volume. Wilkins briefly mentions the analysis performed by A.C. Aarts on the stone shot found near the De Meern fortress in 2012, but doesn’t discuss these methods in detail, how it contributes to a greater understanding of the site and its adjacent sites, or how it would benefit current and future studies. For a book whose goal is largely to provide a foundation for the young or non-specialist academic, explaining such archaeological methods as Wilkins does so extensively with reconstruction of the engines would contribute further towards the overall objective of this volume. Likewise, the volume’s extensive focus on the problems of the “in-swinging” ballista and Iriarte’s particular arrangement of the cheiroballístra take up a sizable chunk of this volume, somewhat skewing its focus. This stands in contrast to the lack of discussion on the proposals of Kayumov’s or Cherrette’s onager models. Perhaps Wilkins was simply unaware of their scholarship, but he does show considerable engagement with Kayumov’s other work elsewhere in the volume (pp. xxii, 98, 104). Another point that suggests that this argument is a particular bias within Wilkins’s work can be found in the fourteenth chapter on the “in-swinging” arms theory. There the author gives a final dismissal of the in-swinging model of the ballista excavated at Hatra in Jordan, on the basis that the trade-off of “rate of launching” for increased power was wholly undesired, stating that “no artilleryman would thank you for all of that” (p. 196). This is a curiously uncritical conclusion, which ignores the clear fact that different engines were built, designed, and used for different applications as evidenced in earlier and later periods, including by Wilkins himself in his discussion of bolt-shooters and stone-throwers. It could be argued that the author’s bias is not his own but rather his grounding in and defense of the work of Eric Marsden.
Finally, the organization of the book could also stand some improvement, particularly in the form of a merging of several rather brief chapters or of discussions with similar focuses. It has already been mentioned that the last three chapters could be combined into a more cohesive conclusion. The discussion of the impact of projectiles would best be served in one standalone chapter, and moving the discussion of the codicology and the problems of topoi in ancient military writing could add greatly to the introduction or form its own chapter. The relevance of Wilkins’s second appendix on the BBC TV program is also questionable, and the space might have been better used as an extension of the fifteenth chapter on the survival of torsion-spring artillery into the Middle Ages. The evidence from this period bears relevancy to many other parts of Wilkins’ text, particularly the discussion of the codicology of the Velopoeika and the discussions on the in-swinging engine, early crossbow, and onager.This results in a lack of discussion of the problem of the springald or the relationship of later fifteenth-century diagrams of that device to the eleventh century cheiroballístra illuminations, a topic also relevant to the chapter on in-swinging arms. One last remark concerns the position of the glossary, which is at the beginning of the work alongside a conversion table of weights and measures. While unusual, this is useful for the reader, particularly those with low familiarity with the field and its abundance of highly technical jargon, and its positioning was a good choice by Wilkins. However, the book could benefit from an index to complement the glossary, albeit this omission may have been an artefact of the editorial and publication process out of Wilkins’s control. A small highlight at the end is a list of the institutions that display the numerous reconstructions mentioned in the book.
Despite these criticisms, Wilkins’s work deserves high praise as a concise summation and introduction to the broad scholarly consensus on Classical through Late Roman artillery. With numerous outstanding color figures and engaging writing, the real-world experimentation and archaeological evidence this book provides serves as a considerable update on its previous edition, keeping it in line with advances in the field. Wilkins fulfills his goal in serving as a staple reference for the student, scholar, or reenactor, and its accessibility will hopefully enable broader engagement with the study of artillery and battlefields among all disciplines in the fields of Classics and Ancient History.
Table of Contents
List of Figures (v–x)
Acknowledgements (xi–xv)
Preface (xvi–xxii)
Glossary (xxiii–xiv)
Weights and Measures (xxv)
Chapter 1: Introduction (1–3)
Chapter 2: Greek Origins (3–13)
Chapter 3: The Menace of the New Weapon (14–21)
Chapter 4: The Bolt-Shooter: Accuracy, Range, and Effects (22–37)
Chapter 5: Reconstructing the Roman Bolt-Shooter (38–68)
Chapter 6: The New Design: The Metal Frame Arch Strut Cheiroballistra/Manuballista (69–112)
Chapter 7: Deciphering the Manuscripts: Vitruvius’ Ballista (113–28)
Chapter 8: The Stone Missiles: Range and Effects (129–32)
Chapter 9: Masada, AD 73–74 (133–35)
Chapter 10: Qasr Ibrim: Artillery in Defence. Inscribed Stone Shot (136–44)
Chapter 12: Burnswark Roman Camps and Native Hillfort, Dumfriesshire (147–77)
Chapter 13: The Last Stone-Throwers (178–82)
Chapter 14: The Hatra Stone-Thrower and the Inward-Swinging Arms Theory (183–96)
Chapter 15: Survival (197)
Chapter 16: The Roman Achievement (198–99)
Chapter 17: Future Search and Research (200–201)
Appendix 1: The Roman Origin of the Mediaeval Revolving-Nut Crossbow Release (202–4)
Appendix 2: Review of 2021 TV Film on Burnswark Hill, Massacre on Hadrian’s Wall (205–9)
Sources and References to Artillery (210–21)
Notes
1. Duncan Campbell, “Ancient Catapults: Some Hypotheses Reexamined,” Hesperia 80 (2011): 677–700; Aitor Iriarte, “Pseudo-Heron’s Cheiroballistra—A(nother) Reconstruction: I. Theoretics,” Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 11 (2000): 47–75; Aitor Iriarte, “The Inswinging Theory,” Gladius 23 (2003): 111–40.
2. Codicology is a subfield of Archaeology that encompasses the scientific study of books and manuscripts as artefacts. The field focuses on the materials, process of manufacture, transmission, and provenance of books and manuscripts, as well as their authorship.
3. The author of this review has also survived such a ricochet.
4. Ildar Kayumov, “Μονάγκων and Onager: A New Look at an Old Problem,” Limes 23 (2018): 564–73; Marc Cherrette, “The Onager, According to Ammianus Marcellinus: A Critical Reconstruction,” Storia Militare Antica 2 (2021): 263–306.
5. María Benítez Galán and Mario Ramirez Galan, “Stone Projectiles from the Siege of Alcalá la Vieja (Spain) and Likely Trebuchet Placement,” Archaeometry 62 (2020): 904–16.
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