Urban Space between the Roman Age and Late Antiquity: Continuity, Discontinuity and Changes

Arabelle Cortese and Giulia Fioratto, eds., Urban Space between the Roman Age and Late Antiquity: Continuity, Discontinuity and Changes (Regensburg: Schnell & Steiner, 2022). 9783795436605. 

Reviewed by Carolyn T. La Rocco, Universität Hamburg, clr9@st-andrews.ac.uk.

Urban Space between the Roman Age and Late Antiquity is a collation of the Acts of the International Workshop at the University of Regensburg (13–14 February 2020). Edited by Arabella Cortese and Giulia Fioratto, the volume has two aims: first, to revisit the question of whether Late Antiquity was a period of urban change, rather than decline; second, to evaluate the relationship between late antique cities and their surrounding territories. Urban Space consists of a preface by Dirk Steuernagel, an introduction by Cortese and Fioratto, seven case studies from the contributors to the volume, and concluding remarks by Nadin Burkhardt. This is followed by fifteen pages of colour plates of key maps and photos from the contributors’ chapters.

Cortese and Fioratto’s introduction provides a brief general overview of the historiography of late- and post-Roman urban change and the relationship between towns and cities and their hinterlands. Working the chapters of each of the volume’s contributors into the discussion of these various aspects of the ancient world, Cortese and Fioretto discuss new methodologies, theoretical frameworks, and questions which have begun to transform the study of late antique urbanism and of sacred spaces and the rise of the “Christian city” in the late- and post-Roman worlds. 

Chapters One and Two consider late antique Aquileia. In Chapter One, Giulia Fioratto looks at Aquileia’s urban and peri-urban space and the changes and continuities therein between the Roman period of the city and Late Antiquity (from the second century BCE through (briefly) the fourth century CE)—i.e., major changes in settlement location and density inside and directly outside Aquileia’s city wall, or reuse or partial abandonment of important structures or areas of the city. Fioratto considers how the study of the Roman city’s urban space and suburbium can be used in conjunction with demographic analysis to illuminate population size, density, and distribution. After establishing Aquileia’s estimated population in the centuries preceding Late Antiquity, Fioratto then considers how the changes to the city’s topography might have impacted its settlement and population, then provides a rough estimate of its (reduced) fourth-century population. As Fioratto notes, the estimated decline is tentative given the dearth of sources available in comparison to the earlier centuries; nonetheless, this is a thought-provoking chapter which will be of interest for studies of ancient demography.

In Chapter Two, Guido Furlan analyses waste management systems and technology in Aquileia, considering what they reveal about the city’s health in the middle Imperial Roman period and how the city’s waste and waste management can be used to track changes in its health and urban (dis)continuity over time. Furlan combines archaeological evidence for urban change with epigraphic, literary, zooarchaeological, and environmental analysis to paint as comprehensive a picture as possible. Furlan provides a brief historiography of waste and waste management studies. This is followed by discussion of general waste management and removal under the Roman system, before moving on to Aquileia’s infrastructure. Furlan considers the maintenance of subterranean drainage culverts throughout Aquileia and portions of its suburbium, noting a decline in maintenance from the third century. This should not necessarily be taken, Furlan points out, as evidence of urban decline or rupture, using Aquileia’s Fondi Cossar site to illustrate that less infrastructure-heavy or less archaeologically visible methods of waste disposal were in use until the fifth or sixth century. 

The chapter contains an important discussion of waste management systems as an output of aristocratic euergetism in the Roman world, wherein Furlan posits a declining return on investment in maintenance of sewage/drainage systems for these elites in comparison to other forms of euergetism (i.e., those that were secular and religious in nature). Furlan concludes that changes in the sewage system and use of dumping grounds within and around the city significantly impacted Aquileia’s urban topography between the third and fifth centuries. This may be indicated, Furlan suggests, by the cessation of theatrical performances in Aquileia’s theatre and its subsequent reuse for refuse disposal in the middle of the fourth century CE. Noting that decline in management of the sewage system also occurred during the city’s increasing Christianisation, Furlan suggests Christian building became more beneficial or attractive than other forms. This is a timely and important observation, reflecting growing scholarly emphasis on the role of private benefaction and Christian euergetism in creating the late antique “Christian city.” It should be noted that Furlan’s potential linking of the decline and abandonment of certain parts of Aquileia to the city’s sacking in 452 cannot be confirmed, but he himself acknowledges this.

In Chapter Three, Birte Poulsen conducts a case study of urbanism in ancient Halikarnassos. This is a strong chapter, which takes an interdisciplinary look at the city from the Hellenistic period through to Late Antiquity, reconsidering whether the late antique city went into decline. Poulsen sets the stage by introducing Halikarnassos before Late Antiquity, using the available architectural, epigraphic, numismatic, textual, and ceramic evidence to demonstrate that this was a fairly stable, prosperous city. As Poulsen notes, the evidence from fourth-century Halikarnassos is even more abundant than that for the earlier centuries, particularly from domestic sites within the city. Poulsen is thus able to take a closer look at the city’s urban planning and other aspects of its material culture. Particularly noteworthy is a discussion of Halikarnassos’s late antique mosaics, especially a mid-fifth century mosaic from the so-called “House of Charidemos.” Halikarnassos’s mosaics are also shown to bear striking similarities to contemporary mosaics from Kos. Taking into consideration the aforementioned evidence, as well as other late antique structures, such as several elite fourth- and fifth-century necropoleis, Poulsen concludes that despite earlier general opinion, late antique Halikarnassos was not in decline. Instead, she demonstrates, the evidence indicates continued modifications to its urban fabric suggestive of continued vitality, including but not limited to new Christian architectural forms. 

Chapter Four presents Yunus Demirci’s study of late antique synagogues in Asia Minor via a case study of Priene. Demirci takes the reader through several phases of Priene’s history: from its earliest existence in its present location in the fourth century BCE; through a peak in prosperity in the Hellenistic age before a “stagnation” in building activities under Roman rule; and through the post-Roman period until Priene’s synagogue and surrounding area were abandoned by the end of the sixth century or start of the seventh. This is followed by discussion of “hierotopy”—creation of sacred space—and the role synagogues like Priene’s played in facilitating and organising the divine worship and interaction of the city’s Jewish population. Demirci considers the synagogue’s placement within Priene, its origins in a reused domestic space, the increasing formality of Jewish liturgical practice, and the resultant changes in the synagogue’s impact on the city’s urban topography. The creation of living “memory communities” by Jewish populations in the ancient world via symbology (particularly via the menorah, shofar, lulav, and ethrog) is briefly explored. These discussions are used to consider how the living sacred space for Priene’s Jewish community represented by the synagogue was similar to and different from Christian churches or other ritual spaces.

Demirci then explores Priene’s late antique Christianisation, particularly from the fifth century, when it became a bishopric. Citing the construction of a large church known as the Episcopal Church and several other small chapels between the fifth and seventh centuries, Demirci considers the impact on Priene’s Jewish population and urban topography. Demirci rightly indicates the complex interactions between Priene’s Christian and Jewish populations suggested by the material evidence, presenting some evidence that may suggest relatively peaceful interactions (e.g., graffiti and the continued use of the synagogue into the seventh century, though diminished in size), but also seemingly clear evidence of conflict. Particularly striking is a brief mention of a reused sculptural relief with the image of a menorah as a paving stone in the Episcopal Church at a time when Priene’s synagogue was still in use, which may be more significant than indicated by the chapter.

Chapter Five, Arabella Cortese’s comparative analysis of late antique monastic communities in Cilicia and Isauria and their relationship to nearby cities or settlements, is another highlight of Urban Space Between the Roman Age and Late Antiquity.¹ Cortese undertakes an archaeological, literary, and epigraphic study of monasticism in Cilicia, followed by three case studies from Isauria (Tagai, Hagia Thekla, and Olba). Cortese illustrates the dual role played by these monastic settlements, as both productive economic units and key points in Cilicia and Isauria’s late antique religious topographies. She first discusses coenobitic monasticism in Cilicia, focussing on the Monastery of St. Theodosius at Rossos described by John Moschos and Theodoret and noting its importance as an economic unit and destination for various holy men, pilgrims, and other travellers.

Cortese chose the Isaurian case studies of Tagai, Hagia Thekla, and Olba for their topography, different forms of interaction with surrounding settlements or urban centres, and importance in Isauria’s sacred landscape. Tagai is composed of a church and several eremitical caves centred around a spring. It seems to demonstrate continued or renewed occupation of an earlier sacred site. The second Isaurian site is Hagia Thekla, described by fourth-century pilgrim and travel writer Egeria as containing various cells with female and male occupants. Importantly, Cortese moves away from a strictly religious approach, considering the site’s economic organisation and productive role via interactions with outside religious communities and production of, for example, soap and holy water. Olba was built on an earlier Roman villa during the late fifth or early sixth century and centred around a water source with likely cultic importance with extensive monumental building and ornamentation indicating wealthy benefaction. Cortese supplements this with epigraphic evidence indicating aristocratic connections to the site. The monastery is suggested to have been very economically productive and connected to a nearby city. Cortese’s contribution draws important conclusions about the origins and spread of monasticism in the late antique world and the role of secular or non-episcopal elites therein.

In Chapter Six, Emanuele E. Intagliata presents a brief, accessible, clear introduction of evidence for the late antique urban environment of cities in the Kingdom of Lazica and neighbouring areas (roughly corresponding to modern-day western Georgia) from the early fourth century to the year 600. Intagliata begins with an overview of the region’s administrative and political history beginning well before the late antique period, as far back as the eighth century BCE, and key peaks and declines in urbanism. He posits the fourth through the sixth centuries as a particularly vital period of urban revitalisation in the southwest Caucasus, but also one of turbulence with repeated cycles of decline and revival associated with contemporary political events. Intagliata presents literary and archaeological evidence to support this claim. The article’s primary focus is on fortified sites because, as he notes, they possess the most monumental and visible evidence for urban planning and building in the southwest Caucasus. He introduces fortified (and often restored/repaired) sites from the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries at, e.g., Rhodopolis, Archaeopolis, Cotais, Bichvinta, and Tsikhisdzhiri. Intagliata also argues that we should not consider the western Caucasus solely through the lens of Byzantine urbanism and paves the way for future comparative studies of the impact of a new Christian topography, citing several Christian churches built in the western Caucasus at, for example, Kutaisi, Pityous, and Nokalevi. Urban bath houses are also briefly introduced. Overall, this is a brief but important and effective chapter, which rightfully points out the ample material available for further in-depth study of the region in its own right and for comparative purposes. The chapter will also serve as a useful starting point for anyone interested in familiarising themselves with the western Caucasus in Late Antiquity.

Rubina Raja’s Chapter Seven considers urban change through the Sanctuary of Bel in Palmyra. Desiring to move away from an exclusive or primary focus on secular monumental architectural forms and spaces and better integrate religion into our understanding of ancient urbanism, Raja evaluates the function of sanctuaries and temples in late antique cities before moving on to how Palmyra’s Sanctuary of Bel changed the city’s topography. Raja provides a brief historiographical introduction, then a general discussion of urban sanctuaries and religious monumentality under the Roman system, looking at the various functions these spaces served before the late antique period to better illustrate the changes which took place. This is followed by a succinct introduction to Palmyra’s political history and associated architectural forms and urban planning and how these compare to other cities in the surrounding area in the centuries before Late Antiquity. Early Imperial Palmyra is seen to be heavily monumentalised, which Raja notes suggests private sponsorship and benefaction. 

Raja introduces Palmyra’s four major local deities (Bel, Yarhibol, Aglibol, and Malakbel) and associated sites of worship via inscriptions, banqueting tokens, and other material finds. This orients the reader within the city’s religious topography, the central node being the Sanctuary of Bel. As Raja notes, Bel’s sanctuary was intended to impress residents and visitors in Palmyra, particularly during processions or other religious events which would have taken place onsite. Following several different phases of construction and modification, the sanctuary became increasingly large and monumentalised. Raja illuminates this process, exploring the sanctuary’s potential earlier forms from the third through first centuries BCE through to its “heyday” in the second century CE and how the continuous alterations to the space must necessarily have impacted not only those taking part in rituals in or around the temple, but also those who passed by the site every day. 

Raja’s chapter, being temporally quite early in focus, does not fully engage with changes in Palmyran urbanism after Roman control, but provides an excellent starting point for future considerations thereof. It also serves as an important reminder to bear in mind the lived experiences of those who interacted with these spaces throughout the ancient world and that these spaces were not fixed or static. 

In Urban Space between the Roman Age and Late Antiquity’s conclusion, Nadin Burkhardt summarises and briefly explores the findings of the previous chapters, reiterating how each of the contributors incorporated various forms of evidence and methodological approaches to develop a comprehensive picture of late antique cities. In doing so, Burkhardt reminds the reader to remain open to new theories or paradigms rather than being constrained by more traditional approaches, such as an assumption of decline or an exclusive focus on monumental architecture. 

The volume’s geographic scope is somewhat restricted, with no chapters dedicated to the Roman or post-Roman west or northern Europe, as also noted by Fraser Reed’s review of Urban Space between the Roman Age and Late Antiquity in Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Several chapters also skew heavily towards the earliest centuries of Late Antiquity, leaving developments in later centuries somewhat less clear. The title or stated scope of the volume could perhaps have been adjusted to better reflect its focus. The text would also have benefitted from more extensive copyediting—syntactical errors and unclear phrasing at times obscure the text’s intended meaning. Nonetheless, Urban Space Between the Roman Age and Late Antiquity is undoubtedly a valuable contribution, adding weight to the argument seen in academia in recent decades that we must move away from the idea of wholesale late antique urban decline. The case studies demonstrate that some cities may have “declined” while others prospered, or that a city may indicate decline when viewed by one metric but relative consistency or improvement by others. The results of several of the chapters also advocate for ancient cities’ urban spheres to be considered in conjunction with other settlements in their hinterlands. Through these contributions, Urban Space Between the Roman Age and Late Antiquity also lays the groundwork for the development of other methods and metrics for study of ancient urbanism. 

Urban Space Between the Roman Age and Late Antiquity will be useful for researchers studying urbanism in one of the specific cities or regions in question. The volume will also be useful for anyone interested in comparing processes of urban change between western areas of the late- and post-Roman world with the geographical areas discussed here. Those interested in the creation of sacred spaces and the physical changes which may accompany it will find this a helpful and thought-provoking read. 

Table of Contents

Preface (6–8)
Introduction / Arabella Cortese and Giulia Fioratto (9–21) 
1. The “Peri-Urban Space” of the City of Aquileia Between Roman age and Late Antiquity: Hints of Demography / Giulia Fioratto (22–37)
2. Waste Management for Evaluating the Health of Cities Between the Roman Age and Late Antiquity: A Brief Reappraisal Looking at Aquileia / Guido Furlan (38–52)
3. Ancient Halikarnassos: Disruption or Continuity after the Golden Age? / Birte Poulsen (53–75)
4. Asia Minor Synagogues within their Late Antique City-Space and Religious Contexts: Priene as a Case Study / Yunus Demirci (76–95)
5. Late Antique Monastic Foundations of Cilicia and Isauria as Landmarks of a Regional Sacred Topography / Arabella Cortese (96–118)
6. Framing the Study of Late Antique Cities in Lazica and Nearby Territories (300–600 AD) / Emanuele E. Intagliata (119–31)
7. Urban Transformations Seen through the Lens of Urban Religion: The Case of the Sanctuary of Bel in Palmyra / Rubina Raja (132–47)
Concluding Remarks / Nadin Burkhardt (148–59)

Notes

1. Cortese’s chapter is the one which engages most extensively with both of the volume’s aims—i.e., changes in late antique urbanism, but also relationships between cities and their surrounding areas (see Fraser Reed, review of Urban Space between the Roman Age and Late Antiquity, ed. Arabelle Cortese and Giulia Fioratto, Bryn Mawr Classical Review, December 2022, https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2022/2022.12.33/).